Dear Lowdown:
How do people determine which commercials will play during certain television shows?
-Caroline D’Andrea (Chicago)
Dear Lowdown:
TV takes up to four hours of Americans day. Specifically placed commercials run throughout television programs and are so ingrained in our mentally of watchings TV that commercials have become a big part of our culture. Basically a commercial is chosen to be placed in a time spot when a company or organization backing the advertisement has paid the highest price for that specific spot. Commercial spots are not cheap, with the famous Super Bowl commercials running up to 2.6 million dollars for 30 seconds on air! But not all companies are looking to play their commercials during the Super Bowl; companies carefully decide when would be an appropriate time for their commercial to show.
Hired commercial committees, otherwise known as advertising agencies have to plan where to place the commercials based on the demographics and interest of the people watching the television show playing. Careful research is done to find a focus target audience. A woman’s deorderant advertisement would not be played during a football game because the audience of women is not large enough for the commercial to produce a profit. It would be more appropriate to place the commercial like this during a drama where there would be a much larger number of women viewers and the advertisement would reach more of its target audience. This example of how gender is used to determine commercial time is just one factor that will play into this process. Another factor in placing commercial s is the interest of the audience. During sports games, commercials will play for team apparel, sport video games, and sports drinks. As you can see all these commercials are centered on the audience’s interest, based on the fact that they are already expressing interest in sports by watching the game in the first place. You are watching the Bears game in the fourth quarter and there is a time out, you can’t get up or change the channel in fear of the game coming back on, so what do you do but sit and endure through the commercials. Advertisers are smart and cunning; they catch us at our weakest points when we just cannot change the channel from our favorite show.
Advertising agencies do much more research that will aid in finding many different factors like gender and interests that ultimately help get the product to the target audience. Once they get the product to us, all they can hope is that we are stuck on the couch and have a willing wallet.
Age is also a big factor in the type of commercials played during certain programs. Younger children soak in so much information from television that it is sometimes difficult for them to tell the difference between the program and commercials. All of the information is absorbed together and they are not able to identify advertising ploys and end up falling for the product. Educational television and children programs slyly slip in commercials that advertise toys, activities, and items that catch unaware children. Then they will go straight to mom and dad for the new Wii video game that they just must have. Then they will complain and complain until the parents will give in and buy it for them. It would not make sense for there to be advertisements for a Kindle during Sesame Street since no kid is going to beg their parents for an electronic book with no pictures. Advertisers are smart and once again catch us unexpectedly.
Companies also look into the amount of people viewing the television programs to decide when the place their advertisement. Prime time spots, between 6pm and 8pm, are the most coveted spots of regular television because it is when most people are home after school and work and have not gone to sleep yet. This time period covers many age groups and both genders so it is more expensive to but a commercial spot at this time.
While researchers and commercialist for television look at the viewers as a whole group, internet advertisements are much more individual and personalized. It is much more difficult to have a target audience for internet advertisements because there are so many people on the internet and it is much more difficult to get data to know a specific target audience.
So instead of placing advertisements on certain websites because of a general target audience, now there are many customizations for advertisements including the ability to “like an advertisement”. This dictates future advertisements that popup for you. Google Ads used this method for a while and Hulu.com also uses this method when video advertisements are playing. This gets the consumer interacting with the advertisement and calls more attention to future advertisements because they customized it. Video advertisements catch us consumers at a weak point, when the boredom of the 1 minute online commercial has set in and we have nothing to do but press “like” or “dislike” or click on the video. How clever to save us from the boredom to the commercial by just advertising us in a round-about interactive way.
Another way that internet allows more relevant commercials to show, is through the history of a person, the internet can suggest, other websites to visit, television shows to watch, or songs to listen to. This continues to get the consumer interacting more with advertisements and more aware of the products available. It isn’t all bad for the consumer; we see exactly what we want and are only one click away from getting it.
Pop up advertisements are huge when surfing the web, annoying millions everyday. With most pop-up blockers, this can really hurt advertisers. So these advertisements are not as coveted and are usually advertising fake contests or obscure “smiley face” or avatar websites. But even with pop up advertisements, in order to get rid of the advertisement we have to close the box, in the process usually reading the advertisement. Over all, Internet advertisements are much more interactive and as a result more personalized for the consumer.
Commercials and advertisements surround every aspect of American life, and is a result of the American Dream: everyone trying to make it on their own and trying to get as much money as the can. Making money is such a huge part of our culture and lifestyle, that natural advertising is important and people do anything to get others to spend money. With commercials so numerous, advertisers need to become inventive and clever at tricking people to spend more money that so much thought is put into making and placing advertisements. Young toddlers watching television are exposed to the constant commercials that we become affected by advertising at a young age. With so much information being absorbed and confused with the actual program being watched, sometimes advertising is taken too far in our country. Many American commercial periods are much longer. Content of television shows are shrinking in length, being replaced with commercials, often containing advertisements within the show. This is a dilemma for American consumers because there is not much we can do. What can we do to defend ourselves from the shrewd advertisers that always find the perfect time to get us?
Commercials will be placed where they will get the most exposure and where the company will profit the most. Advertisements are all about making money and this is the deciding factor when people decide where to try to place their commercials. They growing amount of advertisements has resulted in a different variety and type of advertising that has become much more deceitful and showcased our culture investments in material items.
Sincerely,
Danielle Guerrero
Thursday, March 24, 2011
Dyes: How Processed becomes Natural
Dear Lowdown:
I’ve heard a rumor that blue M&Ms taste better than all the rest of the colors because of some substance that’s only found in blue dye. Is this true?
- Caroline Shadle (Chicago)
Dear Caroline:
Original milk chocolate M &Ms are basically made up of two things: the milk chocolate inside, and that crunchy outer shell that comes in different colors. The inside always has the same ingredients: cocoa butter, sugar and milk. The outermost layer of the shell is where the different dyes are used for color. Here is an overview of how exactly those M&M’s are made:
First off, it should be noted that M&Ms are factory made, and as such are produced in huge quantities (just think of how many are in only one bag!). The process starts with making the interior of the candies. Liquid milk chocolate is poured into the rounded M&M shape mold, and left to harden. Then, several layers of color neutral coating, made from corn syrup and sugar, are applied to the chocolates. This process is known as panning. After the coating on all the candies has reached a certain desired thickness, the last layer of coating is swiped on; the layer which also happens to give the candies their differing colors (Jenkins). For red M&Ms, the dye red 40 is used, for blue M&Ms, blue number 1 and 2 are used, for green, green 3, for brown, a mixture of dyes, for yellow, yellow 5, and for orange, yellow 6 (“Basic Food Guide to Food Color Concentrates”). Then, to minimize the cracking of your precious M&Ms, they are placed on a conveyor belt, and a rubber roller rolls over them, coming out with the characteristic “M”. Sorted by color and accordingly put into bags, they are then sealed, and shipped off to stores (Jenkins). This is where you come in: tempted by your favorite candy that’s only 3 bucks, you grab a bag (or two) pay, open, enjoy.
Now back to the dyes. As previously mentioned blue M&M’s are made with the dye Blue Number 1 and/or Blue Number 2, which are both FDA approved dyes. Blue Number 1, or “brilliant blue” is made from an oil base, while Blue Number 2 is a synthetic version of indigo, and alternately called indigotine. Now do they give blue M&Ms a “better” taste? Well technically, no.
Food coloring or food dyes have one purpose which they carry out quite well; they have the power to give a bland looking food a vivid attractive color. This makes the food more appealing to consumers while keeping the food’s flavor intact. Psychologically, however, different colors do influence people in the food they choose. If a person prefers a specific color, say like blue, they might be inclined to eat the blue M&Ms more. Other people with a preference for blue might be so in love with the color that they believe that blue M&Ms taste way better than those of other colors. In other words, the taste of the same foods of different colors is different for individuals with different preferences for color.
Food dyes, however, are not confined to M&M’s and candy; they are actually quite versatile, appearing most often in other processed foods (which are stored or packaged). In these cases, the dyes are used to cover up the unappealing appearance of the processed foods to make them look “natural”. Blemishes disappear, colors become more vibrant and the foods have even color throughout. One fine example is the Maraschino cherries that are used to top ice cream sundaes. The cherries usually appear beige in color after being dipped in a preservative solution (a brine solution with either sulfur dioxide or alcohol). They are dipped in red food dye to make the cherries more “natural” looking, more appealing (“Food Color Facts”). The epitome of artificial, Maraschino cherries owe their natural visual appeal to food dyes. M&M’s also fall into this category, as the natural chocolate is covered with a sugary, dye-infused outer shell. Sometimes even those good-for-your-health fruits are “fixed” with dyes!
In addition to faking natural, food dyes commit the more serious crime of actually influencing the behavior of young children. Parents of children who consume Capri Sun, Lunchables, various hard candies, candy bars, etc. (which, in this day in age, is quite a lot of kids) report a change in their children’s behavior. The kids are hyperactive, throw more tantrums, and have fitful sleep. When parents eliminate all the processed and preserved foods from their children’s diets, their children’s behavior improves considerably: the kids sleep better, are calmer, and are less prone to mood swings (Weigel). And still, the FDA stands by its approval of food dyes, allowing these processed and preserved foods to continue to be sold and eaten, causing these problems to continue, especially if their people are ignorant of what may be contributing to these difficult behaviors.
To come all the way back to your question, my answer is this: if your favorite color is blue, then blue M&Ms’ might very well taste better to you.
Sincerely,
Irina Mondescu
W
I’ve heard a rumor that blue M&Ms taste better than all the rest of the colors because of some substance that’s only found in blue dye. Is this true?
- Caroline Shadle (Chicago)
Dear Caroline:
Original milk chocolate M &Ms are basically made up of two things: the milk chocolate inside, and that crunchy outer shell that comes in different colors. The inside always has the same ingredients: cocoa butter, sugar and milk. The outermost layer of the shell is where the different dyes are used for color. Here is an overview of how exactly those M&M’s are made:
First off, it should be noted that M&Ms are factory made, and as such are produced in huge quantities (just think of how many are in only one bag!). The process starts with making the interior of the candies. Liquid milk chocolate is poured into the rounded M&M shape mold, and left to harden. Then, several layers of color neutral coating, made from corn syrup and sugar, are applied to the chocolates. This process is known as panning. After the coating on all the candies has reached a certain desired thickness, the last layer of coating is swiped on; the layer which also happens to give the candies their differing colors (Jenkins). For red M&Ms, the dye red 40 is used, for blue M&Ms, blue number 1 and 2 are used, for green, green 3, for brown, a mixture of dyes, for yellow, yellow 5, and for orange, yellow 6 (“Basic Food Guide to Food Color Concentrates”). Then, to minimize the cracking of your precious M&Ms, they are placed on a conveyor belt, and a rubber roller rolls over them, coming out with the characteristic “M”. Sorted by color and accordingly put into bags, they are then sealed, and shipped off to stores (Jenkins). This is where you come in: tempted by your favorite candy that’s only 3 bucks, you grab a bag (or two) pay, open, enjoy.
Now back to the dyes. As previously mentioned blue M&M’s are made with the dye Blue Number 1 and/or Blue Number 2, which are both FDA approved dyes. Blue Number 1, or “brilliant blue” is made from an oil base, while Blue Number 2 is a synthetic version of indigo, and alternately called indigotine. Now do they give blue M&Ms a “better” taste? Well technically, no.
Food coloring or food dyes have one purpose which they carry out quite well; they have the power to give a bland looking food a vivid attractive color. This makes the food more appealing to consumers while keeping the food’s flavor intact. Psychologically, however, different colors do influence people in the food they choose. If a person prefers a specific color, say like blue, they might be inclined to eat the blue M&Ms more. Other people with a preference for blue might be so in love with the color that they believe that blue M&Ms taste way better than those of other colors. In other words, the taste of the same foods of different colors is different for individuals with different preferences for color.
Food dyes, however, are not confined to M&M’s and candy; they are actually quite versatile, appearing most often in other processed foods (which are stored or packaged). In these cases, the dyes are used to cover up the unappealing appearance of the processed foods to make them look “natural”. Blemishes disappear, colors become more vibrant and the foods have even color throughout. One fine example is the Maraschino cherries that are used to top ice cream sundaes. The cherries usually appear beige in color after being dipped in a preservative solution (a brine solution with either sulfur dioxide or alcohol). They are dipped in red food dye to make the cherries more “natural” looking, more appealing (“Food Color Facts”). The epitome of artificial, Maraschino cherries owe their natural visual appeal to food dyes. M&M’s also fall into this category, as the natural chocolate is covered with a sugary, dye-infused outer shell. Sometimes even those good-for-your-health fruits are “fixed” with dyes!
In addition to faking natural, food dyes commit the more serious crime of actually influencing the behavior of young children. Parents of children who consume Capri Sun, Lunchables, various hard candies, candy bars, etc. (which, in this day in age, is quite a lot of kids) report a change in their children’s behavior. The kids are hyperactive, throw more tantrums, and have fitful sleep. When parents eliminate all the processed and preserved foods from their children’s diets, their children’s behavior improves considerably: the kids sleep better, are calmer, and are less prone to mood swings (Weigel). And still, the FDA stands by its approval of food dyes, allowing these processed and preserved foods to continue to be sold and eaten, causing these problems to continue, especially if their people are ignorant of what may be contributing to these difficult behaviors.
To come all the way back to your question, my answer is this: if your favorite color is blue, then blue M&Ms’ might very well taste better to you.
Sincerely,
Irina Mondescu
W
Taboo?
Dear Lowdown:
Why is it that every language and society has their own swear words? Where do swear words come from and how do certain words become so “taboo?”
- Jessica Steans-Gail (Chicago)
Dear Jessica:
I do not swear, never did never will.I do not support the vileness thatspews out of our mouths. However, the study of the pesky four letter words gives insight into the brain’s functions, which is something worth pursuing.Top professors at leading universities predict that swear words may lead them to the core reasoning behind human behavior. Recently, many papers have been published explaining why profanities have infected our language. The reason for the frequent usage is because they are (sadly) an inescapable part of animal nature.
Steven Pinker, a notable professor at Harvard University, isthe most accredited in the field of swear words. Using his expertise in evolutionary psychology, experimental psychology, cognitive science, and linguistics, he developed a theory on swear words. His fascination grew as he came to realize swear words follow different linguistic patterns than average speech demonstrating that those words are processed differently. His technical terms are dauntingbut together we will understand the cognitive neuroscience of swearing.
Words that make your grandmother faint are associated with negative emotion. Once swear words are hurled at you or erupt out of your disgusting excuse for a mouth certain parts of the brain processthe negative emotion attached to each word. The areas of the brain associated with negative emotion (basal ganglia and amygdala) will have a chemical reaction similar to saw dust being poured on a fire. The result is a tremendous burst of energy that normal words could not procure.Unmentionable words ability to activate those parts of the brain is partially the reason why we use swear words.
The activation of the basal ganglia and the amygdalacontribute to our understanding of the penchant ofswearing. The basal ganglion, an area in the depth of the brain, is linked to motor skills and learning, but more interestingly tourette’s disorder. Tourette’s disorder leads to uncontrollable screaming, usually of profanities. The amygdala, also found in the depths of the brain,is linked to perception of a threatening situation such as a mad face or a disgusting image. The reaction proves humans react differently to swear words from the core of our brains compared to average speech. The strong reaction makes us vulnerable to other people’s gruesome discourse.
Collectively mankinduses obscenities as a result of one crucial factor.Once the swear word is blurted out,the brain will unconsciously interpret its meaning.Our species has learned to take advantage of each other’s disposition to cringe at swear words.The “Stroop test”, a common psychology test, will demonstrate the concept. I will use examples from previous experiments.
Say aloud the printed color (not the word)
blue, green, yellow, blue, black, orange, red, green
Again
green, yellow, purple, yellow, red, black, green, orange
Finally (remember say the color)
Fuck, Piss, Cunt, Shit, Tits, Asshole, Prick, Pussy
On average, the last two examples take about the same time to answer. The rationale behind the delay is each word takes longer to interpretbecause their meaning interferes with the ability to identify the color.Youhave to read the word and think about its meaning, causing the time delay,whether you want to or not. This means as the wise Steven Pinker puts it “swearing is using language as a weapon to force a listener to think an unpleasant (or emotionally charged) thought.”
There are several reasons behind someone resorting to such vulgar weapons. One hypothesized idea is “dysphemism” this is used when the time for being polite has passed and no euphemism will suffice. In order express how grave a situation isa swear word serves as a direct tool rather than trying to circumvent the truth with a euphemism. For example when eating a meal that tastes unsavory you could say, “I have had better” or the dysphemism “this tastes like s**t” for a stronger statement. Note I refuse to relegate myself to animalistic impulses instead I would opt for the euphemisms, such as, “this tastes like bio-waste”.
Abusive swearing provides a person with the means to create powerful images using many rhetorical devices to intimidate or humiliate someone. Here is an example of a metaphor “you are a scumbag”. You can imply something awful about another person such as incest with a mainstream cussword such as “mother*ucker”. Now that I know there is an art to words that demanda mouth cleaning I appreciate them more and so should you.
On the other hand there are idiomatic swears coined by Steven Pinker.They are wild exclamations that have little meaning and are meant to get attention. Arousing the areas in the brain with these idiomatic swears is more funny than malevolent. Shouting “sweet *uck-all, What the *uck?” asserts a laid back atmosphere where people feel at ease and can express how they feel without scrutiny. For a similar reason the emphatic swearing is employed to show surprise and excitement and emphasis! The swear words illustrates how “really, really, *ucking brilliant” something is.
The final excuse is cathartic swearing; this maybe the hardest to avoid. These outbursts are triggered by a misfortune such as stubbing your toe or a word document unexpectedly shutting down. Potty mouths claim shouting allows them to “blow off steam” in tough situations. This is called the hydraulic theory (not backed by science). Instead, experts believe that there is a defense mechanism still ingrained in our system dating back to common ancestors millions of years ago. Scientists hypothesize the only differences between humans and howler monkeys (in terms of cathartic swearing) are our complex language and cutting-edge voice box. Mankind has utilized its evolutionary advances with the creation of a copious amount of immoralwords for every situation.
The reasons provided are universal considering their utility in any society. In spite of the fact, most of swears cannot be directly translated from one language to another, linguists have found that many swear words can be grouped into general categories for the ability to create negative emotion.
One category prevalent centuries ago is supernatural such as hell, damn, and other offensive biblical words. The waning of supernatural words began asthe words lost their negative meaning. They don’t inspire much awe and fear. More pandemic nowadays is bodily effluvia and organs, which create a sickening feeling because affluvia is associated with disease and rancid smells. More common among the words are sh*t, p*ss off, and cr*p.
Sexuality is frequently viewed in an uplifting and happy manner yet it may become graphic and the motive of malicious acts. In some cases sexuality causes more harm than good. Sexuality provokes thoughts of exploitation, illegitimacy, incest, jealousy, spousal abuse, cuckoldry and the list continues. When one says “*uck” there is like a tidal waves of negative emotion hitting you and completely drowns out the positive side of sexuality.
The final bad word is the worst of all because itraises emotions of hatred and contempt. The n-word refers to an alienated group or people who are disfavored. It recalls a time of great disparity and injustice. Alienation has ignited much strife in the past. Some nasty words that are relics of those times recall the conflicts even though they cease to exist. The word dink (a term to describe the North Vietnamese soldiers)offends particularly Asians because it unfairly implies that based on appearance one becomes an American killing communist. Those antiquated words tend to make the user appear insular.No one wants to be considered an infidel, cripple, enemy, or subordinated peoples.
These categories do not cover all swear words but give a good idea why a majority of the swear words tossed aroundare considered “taboo”. They may cause a reaction that supersedes normal words, but that does not justify using them. I view swear words like currency. If there are too many in circulation they will lose value and effectiveness. Daily, we are bombarded with verbal attacks. I have developed a tolerance to them and only appreciate the original ones. Humanity is faced with a forked road. Hesitation will lead to the continual use of our vapid swear words. We can take actionwitha renaissance in foul language. Our society will frown upon minimalist swear. The individual will take time to create inventive swears like poets did centuries ago. Here is an antique yet elaborate series of bad words ‘kiss the *unt of a cow,” notice the pleasant meter and alliteration. Preferably we take the virtuous path and purge the swear words that must not be named from our vocabulary. Humans should resist their natural proclivity to swear and demonstrate that we are no longer mere animals but Homo Sapiens.
Sincerely,
Marlon
Why is it that every language and society has their own swear words? Where do swear words come from and how do certain words become so “taboo?”
- Jessica Steans-Gail (Chicago)
Dear Jessica:
I do not swear, never did never will.I do not support the vileness thatspews out of our mouths. However, the study of the pesky four letter words gives insight into the brain’s functions, which is something worth pursuing.Top professors at leading universities predict that swear words may lead them to the core reasoning behind human behavior. Recently, many papers have been published explaining why profanities have infected our language. The reason for the frequent usage is because they are (sadly) an inescapable part of animal nature.
Steven Pinker, a notable professor at Harvard University, isthe most accredited in the field of swear words. Using his expertise in evolutionary psychology, experimental psychology, cognitive science, and linguistics, he developed a theory on swear words. His fascination grew as he came to realize swear words follow different linguistic patterns than average speech demonstrating that those words are processed differently. His technical terms are dauntingbut together we will understand the cognitive neuroscience of swearing.
Words that make your grandmother faint are associated with negative emotion. Once swear words are hurled at you or erupt out of your disgusting excuse for a mouth certain parts of the brain processthe negative emotion attached to each word. The areas of the brain associated with negative emotion (basal ganglia and amygdala) will have a chemical reaction similar to saw dust being poured on a fire. The result is a tremendous burst of energy that normal words could not procure.Unmentionable words ability to activate those parts of the brain is partially the reason why we use swear words.
The activation of the basal ganglia and the amygdalacontribute to our understanding of the penchant ofswearing. The basal ganglion, an area in the depth of the brain, is linked to motor skills and learning, but more interestingly tourette’s disorder. Tourette’s disorder leads to uncontrollable screaming, usually of profanities. The amygdala, also found in the depths of the brain,is linked to perception of a threatening situation such as a mad face or a disgusting image. The reaction proves humans react differently to swear words from the core of our brains compared to average speech. The strong reaction makes us vulnerable to other people’s gruesome discourse.
Collectively mankinduses obscenities as a result of one crucial factor.Once the swear word is blurted out,the brain will unconsciously interpret its meaning.Our species has learned to take advantage of each other’s disposition to cringe at swear words.The “Stroop test”, a common psychology test, will demonstrate the concept. I will use examples from previous experiments.
Say aloud the printed color (not the word)
blue, green, yellow, blue, black, orange, red, green
Again
green, yellow, purple, yellow, red, black, green, orange
Finally (remember say the color)
Fuck, Piss, Cunt, Shit, Tits, Asshole, Prick, Pussy
On average, the last two examples take about the same time to answer. The rationale behind the delay is each word takes longer to interpretbecause their meaning interferes with the ability to identify the color.Youhave to read the word and think about its meaning, causing the time delay,whether you want to or not. This means as the wise Steven Pinker puts it “swearing is using language as a weapon to force a listener to think an unpleasant (or emotionally charged) thought.”
There are several reasons behind someone resorting to such vulgar weapons. One hypothesized idea is “dysphemism” this is used when the time for being polite has passed and no euphemism will suffice. In order express how grave a situation isa swear word serves as a direct tool rather than trying to circumvent the truth with a euphemism. For example when eating a meal that tastes unsavory you could say, “I have had better” or the dysphemism “this tastes like s**t” for a stronger statement. Note I refuse to relegate myself to animalistic impulses instead I would opt for the euphemisms, such as, “this tastes like bio-waste”.
Abusive swearing provides a person with the means to create powerful images using many rhetorical devices to intimidate or humiliate someone. Here is an example of a metaphor “you are a scumbag”. You can imply something awful about another person such as incest with a mainstream cussword such as “mother*ucker”. Now that I know there is an art to words that demanda mouth cleaning I appreciate them more and so should you.
On the other hand there are idiomatic swears coined by Steven Pinker.They are wild exclamations that have little meaning and are meant to get attention. Arousing the areas in the brain with these idiomatic swears is more funny than malevolent. Shouting “sweet *uck-all, What the *uck?” asserts a laid back atmosphere where people feel at ease and can express how they feel without scrutiny. For a similar reason the emphatic swearing is employed to show surprise and excitement and emphasis! The swear words illustrates how “really, really, *ucking brilliant” something is.
The final excuse is cathartic swearing; this maybe the hardest to avoid. These outbursts are triggered by a misfortune such as stubbing your toe or a word document unexpectedly shutting down. Potty mouths claim shouting allows them to “blow off steam” in tough situations. This is called the hydraulic theory (not backed by science). Instead, experts believe that there is a defense mechanism still ingrained in our system dating back to common ancestors millions of years ago. Scientists hypothesize the only differences between humans and howler monkeys (in terms of cathartic swearing) are our complex language and cutting-edge voice box. Mankind has utilized its evolutionary advances with the creation of a copious amount of immoralwords for every situation.
The reasons provided are universal considering their utility in any society. In spite of the fact, most of swears cannot be directly translated from one language to another, linguists have found that many swear words can be grouped into general categories for the ability to create negative emotion.
One category prevalent centuries ago is supernatural such as hell, damn, and other offensive biblical words. The waning of supernatural words began asthe words lost their negative meaning. They don’t inspire much awe and fear. More pandemic nowadays is bodily effluvia and organs, which create a sickening feeling because affluvia is associated with disease and rancid smells. More common among the words are sh*t, p*ss off, and cr*p.
Sexuality is frequently viewed in an uplifting and happy manner yet it may become graphic and the motive of malicious acts. In some cases sexuality causes more harm than good. Sexuality provokes thoughts of exploitation, illegitimacy, incest, jealousy, spousal abuse, cuckoldry and the list continues. When one says “*uck” there is like a tidal waves of negative emotion hitting you and completely drowns out the positive side of sexuality.
The final bad word is the worst of all because itraises emotions of hatred and contempt. The n-word refers to an alienated group or people who are disfavored. It recalls a time of great disparity and injustice. Alienation has ignited much strife in the past. Some nasty words that are relics of those times recall the conflicts even though they cease to exist. The word dink (a term to describe the North Vietnamese soldiers)offends particularly Asians because it unfairly implies that based on appearance one becomes an American killing communist. Those antiquated words tend to make the user appear insular.No one wants to be considered an infidel, cripple, enemy, or subordinated peoples.
These categories do not cover all swear words but give a good idea why a majority of the swear words tossed aroundare considered “taboo”. They may cause a reaction that supersedes normal words, but that does not justify using them. I view swear words like currency. If there are too many in circulation they will lose value and effectiveness. Daily, we are bombarded with verbal attacks. I have developed a tolerance to them and only appreciate the original ones. Humanity is faced with a forked road. Hesitation will lead to the continual use of our vapid swear words. We can take actionwitha renaissance in foul language. Our society will frown upon minimalist swear. The individual will take time to create inventive swears like poets did centuries ago. Here is an antique yet elaborate series of bad words ‘kiss the *unt of a cow,” notice the pleasant meter and alliteration. Preferably we take the virtuous path and purge the swear words that must not be named from our vocabulary. Humans should resist their natural proclivity to swear and demonstrate that we are no longer mere animals but Homo Sapiens.
Sincerely,
Marlon
Thursday, March 17, 2011
Staring at Light Eyes
Dear Lowdown:
Why do my eyes shift from blue to green?
- Nora Molasky (Chicago)
Dear Nora:
Eye color has always been a source of fascination and fixation for people--it is a marvel in itself. When you first meet someone, face to face, the first thing you usually notice are their eyes; if they are particularly appealing you find yourself getting lost inside their magic and you treat that person differently. Light eyes in particular will always attract special attention because of their rarity and the aura of pureness they offer. Those who possess them casts a spell on anyone who lays eyes on them--because people love to stare at light eyes.
Nora, you would fit into one of those people who are given special attention.
I am not sure if I have ever heard of anyone’s eyes changing from three different shades. Regardless I hope this will help you to understand your fascinating predicament and just how special you are! In the 1930’s eugenicists used the disappearance of blue eyes to rally support for new immigration restrictions, they even mapped out areas in the U.S. with the highest and lowest concentration of blue eyes—feel special?
Eye color has a polygenic phenotypic character, meaning it is determined from the amount and variations of pigment in a person’s iris. The iris is a round structure in the eye that is accountable for controlling the diameter and the size of the pupil, as well as the amount of light that can enter it. Or, more simply, the iris is the colored part of your eye and the pupil is the small black dot in its center. The iris when exposed to light can expand or contract the pupil; this can slightly change the color of the eye, the larger the pupil the more light can enter. A fun experiment, that I myself have tried, is to bring light close to your eye and then move it away paying attention to the size of your pupil; the part of your eye that you are observing only constitutes one sixth of your eyeball—Whoa, I know!
Eye color is determined by multiple genes, however the primary ones are: EYCL 1 which is a green-blue, EYCL2 which is brown, and EYCL3 which is a brown blue. Less common colors such as hazel come from a combination of these genes. Contrary to popular belief, blue eyes are not a recessive trait ; they evolved from a mutation that occurred in a single individual over 10,000 years ago—that means that you and Miley Cyrus have the same ancestor. There are also three main elements that contribute to the iris’ color (genes leading to color and elements leading to color are not to be confused, genes have to do with hereditary traits that are passed on from people while elements of eye color have to do with the levels of variation within the eye physically). They are: melanin, a commonly found pigment that is black and brown; tissue composed of cells, and the melanin content within the iris stroma, a muscular tissue that allows the iris to contract and expand; and cellular density of the iris stroma. In simpler words: the dark pigment from in the iris’ cellular tissue, the muscular tissue, and the cellular density of the iris. And after reading all of this I’m sure you realized that the eye is the most complex organ in the body aside from the brain.
From a very young age you can predict whether a child’s eye color will change over time. Children are born with un-pigmented eyes and melanocyte cells continually produce pigment allowing eye color to change. The larger the levels of melanin in the iris, the darker the eye color and vice versa. You can then logically conclude that people with blue eyes have low levels of melanin while people with brown eyes have high levels of melanin.
There are several different reasons for the changing of eye color, unfortunately sickness being one of them. Dramatic color changes, for example brown to blue, should be reported to a doctor since that would indicate a significant decrease in melanin levels and is not a natural color shift. For sudden slight color changes this can be attributed to the level of lighting. When the iris contracts or expands due to lighting the pupil controls the amount of light entering, thereby lightening or darkening the iris—but only slightly. If your eye color darkens over time, then most likely when you were younger you had very light eyes with a brown color behind the iris waiting to darken those light eyes.
It has been argued that going through puberty as well as traumatic incidents can slightly alter eye color due to increased hormonal levels and chemical reactions in the body—however, I hope a traumatic incident is not what caused your eyes to change. Another theory exploring to eye color change is linked to emotions although it is not backed by scientific evidence, so I have my doubts—personally, with brown eyes I don’t think this is even possible.
There are also ways in which your eye color can change at your command. Colored contacts have been increasingly popular lately as they have improved over time and become easily accessible. The contacts come in two kinds: the enhancer which is meant for people who already have light eyes but want to achieve that shade of aquamarine or jade, and then there is the opaque which is meant for any eye color and can facilitate drastic color changes (such as from brown to blue). However the result of these drastic eye color changes only results in an eye color that looks acceptable on a Barbie but makes no sense on a person. If you ever decide that you no longer appreciate your light green and blue eyes you could simply talk to your local eye doctor and have brown or hazel eyes in no time—I don’t think this would be the case for you since you have the most desired eye colors.
There are also extreme methods for changing eye color one of them being surgery and the other a pill. A company who had previously done procedures for people who suffer from a disease that alters their eye color in undesirable ways now offers a cosmetic procedure. New ColorIris which is inserted into the eye comes in two colors: light blue and green—those coveted colors you possess. The results of this procedure, like the colored contact, create a color that appears unnatural and dull; it seems to lack the vivacious twinkle that appears even in dark brown eyes. There is also pill that was released in 2007 that reportedly can change eye and skin color by adjusting the levels of melanin in the body.
In a society where looks are always important, when does aesthetic pleasure and desire reach the extreme? According to the King James Version of the Bible “ the eyes are a window to the soul” denotes that the eyes shine and provide light to the whole body. If this light were to be replaced by an artificial one, in this case a colored contact, then what does that say about you as a person? Stereotypes are also linked to eye color, the most desired colors, blue and green, each denote something unique. Blue eyes are said to signify being carefree and innocent, as well as eternal youth. Green eyes are said to signify sexiness since they are often the color of cat’s eyes. Do you fell this way about yourself? Blue eyes are especially coveted; in Toni Morrison’s “The Bluest Eye” the main character drives herself to insanity wishing for blue eyes so she can be loved by everyone around her. For people, light eyes mean having the world reach out to you gently.
Nora, I would consider yourself to be a very lucky person. Many people attempt to achieve what you have and fail miserably in doing so. Others sit around wanting lovely light eyes secretly wondering inside what it would be like. You in some ways get the best of both worlds: you can be sweet and innocent in one instant, but mysterious in the next. Doesn’t that sound fun? No matter where you are you will always be given special attention since people love to stare at light eyes.
Sincerely,
Montana Fredrick
Why do my eyes shift from blue to green?
- Nora Molasky (Chicago)
Dear Nora:
Eye color has always been a source of fascination and fixation for people--it is a marvel in itself. When you first meet someone, face to face, the first thing you usually notice are their eyes; if they are particularly appealing you find yourself getting lost inside their magic and you treat that person differently. Light eyes in particular will always attract special attention because of their rarity and the aura of pureness they offer. Those who possess them casts a spell on anyone who lays eyes on them--because people love to stare at light eyes.
Nora, you would fit into one of those people who are given special attention.
I am not sure if I have ever heard of anyone’s eyes changing from three different shades. Regardless I hope this will help you to understand your fascinating predicament and just how special you are! In the 1930’s eugenicists used the disappearance of blue eyes to rally support for new immigration restrictions, they even mapped out areas in the U.S. with the highest and lowest concentration of blue eyes—feel special?
Eye color has a polygenic phenotypic character, meaning it is determined from the amount and variations of pigment in a person’s iris. The iris is a round structure in the eye that is accountable for controlling the diameter and the size of the pupil, as well as the amount of light that can enter it. Or, more simply, the iris is the colored part of your eye and the pupil is the small black dot in its center. The iris when exposed to light can expand or contract the pupil; this can slightly change the color of the eye, the larger the pupil the more light can enter. A fun experiment, that I myself have tried, is to bring light close to your eye and then move it away paying attention to the size of your pupil; the part of your eye that you are observing only constitutes one sixth of your eyeball—Whoa, I know!
Eye color is determined by multiple genes, however the primary ones are: EYCL 1 which is a green-blue, EYCL2 which is brown, and EYCL3 which is a brown blue. Less common colors such as hazel come from a combination of these genes. Contrary to popular belief, blue eyes are not a recessive trait ; they evolved from a mutation that occurred in a single individual over 10,000 years ago—that means that you and Miley Cyrus have the same ancestor. There are also three main elements that contribute to the iris’ color (genes leading to color and elements leading to color are not to be confused, genes have to do with hereditary traits that are passed on from people while elements of eye color have to do with the levels of variation within the eye physically). They are: melanin, a commonly found pigment that is black and brown; tissue composed of cells, and the melanin content within the iris stroma, a muscular tissue that allows the iris to contract and expand; and cellular density of the iris stroma. In simpler words: the dark pigment from in the iris’ cellular tissue, the muscular tissue, and the cellular density of the iris. And after reading all of this I’m sure you realized that the eye is the most complex organ in the body aside from the brain.
From a very young age you can predict whether a child’s eye color will change over time. Children are born with un-pigmented eyes and melanocyte cells continually produce pigment allowing eye color to change. The larger the levels of melanin in the iris, the darker the eye color and vice versa. You can then logically conclude that people with blue eyes have low levels of melanin while people with brown eyes have high levels of melanin.
There are several different reasons for the changing of eye color, unfortunately sickness being one of them. Dramatic color changes, for example brown to blue, should be reported to a doctor since that would indicate a significant decrease in melanin levels and is not a natural color shift. For sudden slight color changes this can be attributed to the level of lighting. When the iris contracts or expands due to lighting the pupil controls the amount of light entering, thereby lightening or darkening the iris—but only slightly. If your eye color darkens over time, then most likely when you were younger you had very light eyes with a brown color behind the iris waiting to darken those light eyes.
It has been argued that going through puberty as well as traumatic incidents can slightly alter eye color due to increased hormonal levels and chemical reactions in the body—however, I hope a traumatic incident is not what caused your eyes to change. Another theory exploring to eye color change is linked to emotions although it is not backed by scientific evidence, so I have my doubts—personally, with brown eyes I don’t think this is even possible.
There are also ways in which your eye color can change at your command. Colored contacts have been increasingly popular lately as they have improved over time and become easily accessible. The contacts come in two kinds: the enhancer which is meant for people who already have light eyes but want to achieve that shade of aquamarine or jade, and then there is the opaque which is meant for any eye color and can facilitate drastic color changes (such as from brown to blue). However the result of these drastic eye color changes only results in an eye color that looks acceptable on a Barbie but makes no sense on a person. If you ever decide that you no longer appreciate your light green and blue eyes you could simply talk to your local eye doctor and have brown or hazel eyes in no time—I don’t think this would be the case for you since you have the most desired eye colors.
There are also extreme methods for changing eye color one of them being surgery and the other a pill. A company who had previously done procedures for people who suffer from a disease that alters their eye color in undesirable ways now offers a cosmetic procedure. New ColorIris which is inserted into the eye comes in two colors: light blue and green—those coveted colors you possess. The results of this procedure, like the colored contact, create a color that appears unnatural and dull; it seems to lack the vivacious twinkle that appears even in dark brown eyes. There is also pill that was released in 2007 that reportedly can change eye and skin color by adjusting the levels of melanin in the body.
In a society where looks are always important, when does aesthetic pleasure and desire reach the extreme? According to the King James Version of the Bible “ the eyes are a window to the soul” denotes that the eyes shine and provide light to the whole body. If this light were to be replaced by an artificial one, in this case a colored contact, then what does that say about you as a person? Stereotypes are also linked to eye color, the most desired colors, blue and green, each denote something unique. Blue eyes are said to signify being carefree and innocent, as well as eternal youth. Green eyes are said to signify sexiness since they are often the color of cat’s eyes. Do you fell this way about yourself? Blue eyes are especially coveted; in Toni Morrison’s “The Bluest Eye” the main character drives herself to insanity wishing for blue eyes so she can be loved by everyone around her. For people, light eyes mean having the world reach out to you gently.
Nora, I would consider yourself to be a very lucky person. Many people attempt to achieve what you have and fail miserably in doing so. Others sit around wanting lovely light eyes secretly wondering inside what it would be like. You in some ways get the best of both worlds: you can be sweet and innocent in one instant, but mysterious in the next. Doesn’t that sound fun? No matter where you are you will always be given special attention since people love to stare at light eyes.
Sincerely,
Montana Fredrick
Why Don’t Cats and Dogs Get Human Viruses?
Dear Lowdown:
Can cats and dogs contract the same viruses as humans?
- Allie Lee (Chicago)
Dear Allie:
Do you remember that old wives tale? The one that says cats can steal the breath of babies while they are sleeping? Well there is some truth behind it. Some viruses can be spread from cats, and other domesticated animals, to humans, and vise versa. But wait, before you go telling your great Aunt Marian that she was right to feint from terror when she saw your cat Ben sleeping on your baby brother’s chest, you should know that, due to the differences in the genetic makeup of viruses that affect human and animal immune systems, the instances in which viruses are spread this way are rare. What you should be worried about is how viruses are spread within the animal community, and our community as well.
Viruses are tiny organisms that are made up of strands of DNA. The codes within the DNA of the virus determine whom they can affect. Unlike other cells, viruses cannot survive or reproduce without a host of living cells. Viruses can infect a host cell through two different processes. They can either choose to kill their host cell, or, if they are nice, to quietly live inside the cell until the cell dies of natural causes.
The first method occurs when a virus attaches itself to the outside of the host cell, drills a hole into the cells membrane, and implants part of its genetic material into the host cell. The genetic material grows inside the cell, and creates thousands of copies of the virus that then, due to lack of room within the cell, burst through the host cell’s membrane, effectively killing the cell (“Science Clarified”).
You’ve seen alien right? Imagine that, but instead of one alien bursting out of a woman’s stomach, imagine thousands of tiny little aliens bursting out of every part of the woman’s body. Lovely, isn’t it?
The second method is a lot less gruesome, but far more invasive. The virus inserts itself into the host cell, and combines its genetic material with that of the host cell. The virus can then make thousands of copies of itself through the cell’s own reproductive process of mitosis (“Science Clarified”).
It is very rare for a human to contract a fatal virus from a dog or a cat or visa versa. Dogs and cats cannot catch human colds due to the fact that the viruses that affect us and the viruses that affect animals usually have a different genetic sequence from each other. The differences in DNA make it impossible for a virus that is commonly found in humans to be hosted by an animal’s cell, due to the fact that the animal’s immune system would recognize the presence of a foreign body.
Think of our viruses and animal viruses as two different species. These two species don't just look different, but are genetically different. Oh. And they hate each other. Now imagine what would happen if an animal virus decides to go live in an area that is completely populated by human viruses. If you can’t imagine, let’s just say that the virus will no longer be infecting innocent animals.
This however, does not mean that humans and animals cannot contract viruses from each other. They can, and when they do, the viruses are often very potent. The most common viruses in both humans and animals is the flu. The flu is caused by multiple strains of the same virus, and is capable of mutating, which not only causes problems for us, but also for our pets (“CDC”).
Type A flu is the most common flu, and is found in both humans and animal, and some strands of the virus can be transferred from either host. This occurs when an animal variation of the flu mixes with a human variation of the flu.
For example, the pig is susceptible to both human and avian flu (avian flu is used to describe Type A flu found in most animals) and can therefore act as a breeding ground for mutating flu viruses. When a pig contracts both a human flu and an avian flu simultaneously the flu viruses combine together to form a new strain of the flu virus (“CDC”). This flu virus is like the super villain of viruses. Not only does it have the characteristics of both human and avian flu - which makes it capable of infecting humans and animals - but also it is virtually impossible to vaccinate against due to the fact that there is no other strain like it. This happened last year when the H1N1 flu virus was created from a mutation formed from avian, swine, and human flu.
The flu is not the only virus that we can catch from animals. Our pets carry numerous viruses and infectious diseases that can be harmful to us. These viruses are usually transmitted through saliva or scratches. So the next time you’re letting Fluffy lick your cut to “clean it,” please, don’t.
Dogs and cats also have a wide variety of viruses that can only affect their immune systems, and they are as varied as the viruses that affect us. Lucky them. Some of the more fatal ones are: rabies and kennel cough in dogs, and feline leukemia and Calici in cats.
Rabies is a virus that is transmitted through saliva. Once a dog is infected with rabies the virus attacks the nervous system, and this is what makes the dog foam at the mouth and act abnormally. This is not to be confused with your dad spraying whipped cream on you dog’s face to freak out your mother. Rabies is one of the few fatal viruses that can be spread to humans through saliva. Kennel Cough is to dogs as the common cold is to humans. The virus is spread through contact with infected dogs, and is most dangerous to puppies because it can suppress the immune system (“Dog Owner’s Guide”).
Feline leukemia is almost exactly the same as leukemia in humans, except for the fact that Feline leukemia is contagious. It is caused by a virus, which mutates to form cancerous cells. The virus is spread through urine, spit, and other fun stuff (“Pet Place”). This animal strain of leukemia is an example of a viral strain that cannot be contracted by humans.
Calici is one of the most fatal diseases in cats, due to the fact that humans can act as “carriers,” spreading the virus to other cats. If a person comes in contact with the virus, they can spread it by touching another cat. The virus causes an upper respiratory infection that weakens the immune system, and can ultimately lead to a fatal case of pneumonia (“CFA”).
With today’s technology most viruses, animal and human, can be prevented with vaccinations. Bodies are protected from infection by disease-fighting cells called antibodies. An antibody can only attack a virus that it recognizes. Vaccinations work by exposing an immune system to a small amount of the virus. This enables your immune system to build up antibodies that recognize the virus’ DNA, so your body can defend itself if the virus is contracted. Think of antibodies as soldiers; really dumb soldiers that can only attack if they recognize the person that they are about to kill.
Vaccinations for both humans and animals are not required by law. In fact, the only viruses you are required to vaccinate against is rabies (for your dog of course). Many people choose not to vaccinate their pet because they believe it is harmful. There is a small chance that vaccinating a pet will harm it due to the fact that you are exposing the animal to a miniscule amount of the virus. Parents also often decide not to vaccinate their children against viruses such as the chicken pox and measles, because these vaccines have been linked to an early onset of autism. But, once again, the chance of this occurring is very small.
By choosing not to vaccinate their animals and children, pet owners and parents are not only putting their children at risk of infection, but also other children. When a child who is not vaccinated goes out in public he cannot only contract the virus, but can also act as carrier and spread the virus throughout his community. For instance, the measles, which used to be under control, has reached almost endemic proportions in communities throughout America, due to the fact that parents refuse to vaccinate their children. This is also the case for feline leukemia, which, due to owners not vaccinating their cats has caused thousands of cats (stray and domestic) to die.
Choosing not to vaccinate also proves problematic during flu season. As mentioned earlier the flu is a very nasty but smart bug that can mutate and infect both humans and animals. By not vaccinating ourselves during flu season we create the ultimate environment for the creation of an invincible flu virus. This is what happened last year with swine flu panic (mentioned earlier), the main cause of last year’s panic was that the Swine Flu virus was much stronger than its cousin the normal flu. Its strength stemmed from the fact that for years preceding the panic many people had become lax in their vaccinations enabling the virus to mutate into a strong almost invincible virus. This will happen again if people do not protect themselves against viruses. Next time, the virus will be even stronger. So if you really want to help prevent the next viral apocalypse, please, vaccinate yourself and your pets.
Sincerely,
Nora Molasky
Works Cited
1. "Virus." Science Clarified. Advameg Inc., 2010. Web. 14 Nov 2010..
2. Transition of Influenza Viruses from Animals to People." CDC centers for disease control and prevention. CDC, 2010. Web. 14 Nov 2010..
3. "Influenza Viruses." CDC centers for disease control and prevention. CDC, 2010. Web. 26 Nov 2010..
4. "Dog Diseases." Dog Owner's Guide. Canis Major Publications, 2010. Web. 14 Nov 2010..
5. Lagerwerf, Wilma. "Feline Upper Respiratory Diseases: Calici." CFA cat fancier's association inc. Canis Major Publications, 2010. Web. 14 Nov 2010.
6. Primovic, Debra. "Feline Leukemia Virus." Pet Place. Intelligent Content Corporation, 2010. Web. 26 Nov 2010..
Can cats and dogs contract the same viruses as humans?
- Allie Lee (Chicago)
Dear Allie:
Do you remember that old wives tale? The one that says cats can steal the breath of babies while they are sleeping? Well there is some truth behind it. Some viruses can be spread from cats, and other domesticated animals, to humans, and vise versa. But wait, before you go telling your great Aunt Marian that she was right to feint from terror when she saw your cat Ben sleeping on your baby brother’s chest, you should know that, due to the differences in the genetic makeup of viruses that affect human and animal immune systems, the instances in which viruses are spread this way are rare. What you should be worried about is how viruses are spread within the animal community, and our community as well.
Viruses are tiny organisms that are made up of strands of DNA. The codes within the DNA of the virus determine whom they can affect. Unlike other cells, viruses cannot survive or reproduce without a host of living cells. Viruses can infect a host cell through two different processes. They can either choose to kill their host cell, or, if they are nice, to quietly live inside the cell until the cell dies of natural causes.
The first method occurs when a virus attaches itself to the outside of the host cell, drills a hole into the cells membrane, and implants part of its genetic material into the host cell. The genetic material grows inside the cell, and creates thousands of copies of the virus that then, due to lack of room within the cell, burst through the host cell’s membrane, effectively killing the cell (“Science Clarified”).
You’ve seen alien right? Imagine that, but instead of one alien bursting out of a woman’s stomach, imagine thousands of tiny little aliens bursting out of every part of the woman’s body. Lovely, isn’t it?
The second method is a lot less gruesome, but far more invasive. The virus inserts itself into the host cell, and combines its genetic material with that of the host cell. The virus can then make thousands of copies of itself through the cell’s own reproductive process of mitosis (“Science Clarified”).
It is very rare for a human to contract a fatal virus from a dog or a cat or visa versa. Dogs and cats cannot catch human colds due to the fact that the viruses that affect us and the viruses that affect animals usually have a different genetic sequence from each other. The differences in DNA make it impossible for a virus that is commonly found in humans to be hosted by an animal’s cell, due to the fact that the animal’s immune system would recognize the presence of a foreign body.
Think of our viruses and animal viruses as two different species. These two species don't just look different, but are genetically different. Oh. And they hate each other. Now imagine what would happen if an animal virus decides to go live in an area that is completely populated by human viruses. If you can’t imagine, let’s just say that the virus will no longer be infecting innocent animals.
This however, does not mean that humans and animals cannot contract viruses from each other. They can, and when they do, the viruses are often very potent. The most common viruses in both humans and animals is the flu. The flu is caused by multiple strains of the same virus, and is capable of mutating, which not only causes problems for us, but also for our pets (“CDC”).
Type A flu is the most common flu, and is found in both humans and animal, and some strands of the virus can be transferred from either host. This occurs when an animal variation of the flu mixes with a human variation of the flu.
For example, the pig is susceptible to both human and avian flu (avian flu is used to describe Type A flu found in most animals) and can therefore act as a breeding ground for mutating flu viruses. When a pig contracts both a human flu and an avian flu simultaneously the flu viruses combine together to form a new strain of the flu virus (“CDC”). This flu virus is like the super villain of viruses. Not only does it have the characteristics of both human and avian flu - which makes it capable of infecting humans and animals - but also it is virtually impossible to vaccinate against due to the fact that there is no other strain like it. This happened last year when the H1N1 flu virus was created from a mutation formed from avian, swine, and human flu.
The flu is not the only virus that we can catch from animals. Our pets carry numerous viruses and infectious diseases that can be harmful to us. These viruses are usually transmitted through saliva or scratches. So the next time you’re letting Fluffy lick your cut to “clean it,” please, don’t.
Dogs and cats also have a wide variety of viruses that can only affect their immune systems, and they are as varied as the viruses that affect us. Lucky them. Some of the more fatal ones are: rabies and kennel cough in dogs, and feline leukemia and Calici in cats.
Rabies is a virus that is transmitted through saliva. Once a dog is infected with rabies the virus attacks the nervous system, and this is what makes the dog foam at the mouth and act abnormally. This is not to be confused with your dad spraying whipped cream on you dog’s face to freak out your mother. Rabies is one of the few fatal viruses that can be spread to humans through saliva. Kennel Cough is to dogs as the common cold is to humans. The virus is spread through contact with infected dogs, and is most dangerous to puppies because it can suppress the immune system (“Dog Owner’s Guide”).
Feline leukemia is almost exactly the same as leukemia in humans, except for the fact that Feline leukemia is contagious. It is caused by a virus, which mutates to form cancerous cells. The virus is spread through urine, spit, and other fun stuff (“Pet Place”). This animal strain of leukemia is an example of a viral strain that cannot be contracted by humans.
Calici is one of the most fatal diseases in cats, due to the fact that humans can act as “carriers,” spreading the virus to other cats. If a person comes in contact with the virus, they can spread it by touching another cat. The virus causes an upper respiratory infection that weakens the immune system, and can ultimately lead to a fatal case of pneumonia (“CFA”).
With today’s technology most viruses, animal and human, can be prevented with vaccinations. Bodies are protected from infection by disease-fighting cells called antibodies. An antibody can only attack a virus that it recognizes. Vaccinations work by exposing an immune system to a small amount of the virus. This enables your immune system to build up antibodies that recognize the virus’ DNA, so your body can defend itself if the virus is contracted. Think of antibodies as soldiers; really dumb soldiers that can only attack if they recognize the person that they are about to kill.
Vaccinations for both humans and animals are not required by law. In fact, the only viruses you are required to vaccinate against is rabies (for your dog of course). Many people choose not to vaccinate their pet because they believe it is harmful. There is a small chance that vaccinating a pet will harm it due to the fact that you are exposing the animal to a miniscule amount of the virus. Parents also often decide not to vaccinate their children against viruses such as the chicken pox and measles, because these vaccines have been linked to an early onset of autism. But, once again, the chance of this occurring is very small.
By choosing not to vaccinate their animals and children, pet owners and parents are not only putting their children at risk of infection, but also other children. When a child who is not vaccinated goes out in public he cannot only contract the virus, but can also act as carrier and spread the virus throughout his community. For instance, the measles, which used to be under control, has reached almost endemic proportions in communities throughout America, due to the fact that parents refuse to vaccinate their children. This is also the case for feline leukemia, which, due to owners not vaccinating their cats has caused thousands of cats (stray and domestic) to die.
Choosing not to vaccinate also proves problematic during flu season. As mentioned earlier the flu is a very nasty but smart bug that can mutate and infect both humans and animals. By not vaccinating ourselves during flu season we create the ultimate environment for the creation of an invincible flu virus. This is what happened last year with swine flu panic (mentioned earlier), the main cause of last year’s panic was that the Swine Flu virus was much stronger than its cousin the normal flu. Its strength stemmed from the fact that for years preceding the panic many people had become lax in their vaccinations enabling the virus to mutate into a strong almost invincible virus. This will happen again if people do not protect themselves against viruses. Next time, the virus will be even stronger. So if you really want to help prevent the next viral apocalypse, please, vaccinate yourself and your pets.
Sincerely,
Nora Molasky
Works Cited
1. "Virus." Science Clarified. Advameg Inc., 2010. Web. 14 Nov 2010.
2. Transition of Influenza Viruses from Animals to People." CDC centers for disease control and prevention. CDC, 2010. Web. 14 Nov 2010.
3. "Influenza Viruses." CDC centers for disease control and prevention. CDC, 2010. Web. 26 Nov 2010.
4. "Dog Diseases." Dog Owner's Guide. Canis Major Publications, 2010. Web. 14 Nov 2010.
5. Lagerwerf, Wilma. "Feline Upper Respiratory Diseases: Calici." CFA cat fancier's association inc. Canis Major Publications, 2010. Web. 14 Nov 2010.
6. Primovic, Debra. "Feline Leukemia Virus." Pet Place. Intelligent Content Corporation, 2010. Web. 26 Nov 2010.
Boys Rule, Girls Drool
Dear Lowdown:
Why do girls mature so much faster than boys do?
Sylvia Montijo (Chicago)
Dear Sylvia,
Girls mature faster than boys. It has been said millions of times, but nothing is ever black and white. There is always that grey area. And I say that this subject happens to have a large grey area. Children’s brains develop in different ways, not on the same path as most neurologists previously thought. In 2007, the world's largest study of brain development in children was published and their results demonstrated that there was no overlap in the trajectories of brain development in girls and boys (Elsevier). Yes, girls do act more maturely at younger ages, but only in certain ways compared to boys of the same age. But, of course, everyone knows that boys are actually more mature.
The fact of the matter is that boys are very mature; they just choose not to show it to everyone. Every boy, from the day they are born, has an innate knowledge that they understand the world much more easily than girls (Sorry ladies). Boys do not play house or play with dolls; they play with toys that encourage them to explore, learn, and ultimately enjoy life to the fullest capacity from a young age. Even if a boy is introverted, he can explore inwardly and follow a different path in which he pursues other endeavors, such as a musical or an intellectual activity. The exceptional part about a boy’s maturity is that every boy hides it from the world whether deliberately or subconsciously. Boys push themselves to become intelligent, physically active, and socially graceful. The most matured part about a boy, though, is his competiveness. From a very early age, boys begin to push themselves to the limit of what they are capable of. Whether they succeed in these ventures relies on their determination, but they will continue to strive until they find the niche that best suits them.
Girls may mature socially faster than boys and develop their fine motor skills, as well, but when it comes to handwriting and sewing both are becoming less and less useful. In this age of technology, a kid will only need to learn how to type and write their signature. Few girls today are required to sew their own clothes or create household linens. No one will need to be able to write lengthy narratives legibly or sew dainty garments, so the early fine motor skills do not contribute to a huge gap between the maturity of a boy and that of a girl.
A girl’s early maturity is often evident in her social skills. A girl may be very adept at creating new friendships with other girls, but with this skill comes jealously and the need to fit in with others. The early development of social skills is just a distraction for young women. If they learned to follow the example of boys, girls would be much better off. Because of boy’s late-developing social skills, they have time to learn about themselves first before attempting to learn about their peers. This shows that we are deep ladies, not as shallow or brain-dead as some of you may think. This allows boys to become comfortable with themselves first before attempting to learn about their peers and before becoming immersed in social situations. Boys have the advantage of time to learn about themselves before they attempt to cultivate or understand relationships with others.
Boys also develop much more practical skills earlier than girls. The first skill sets that a girl develops are included in the creative and linguistic areas of a young girl’s brain (Hanson). On the other hand, the boys’ brains are maturing in the parts concerning targeting and spatial memory, areas that mature about four years earlier in boys than girls (Hanson). Another obvious reason why we are better, we do not just go out there and improvise, we learn and adapt. They learn how to build and construct things when they are younger. They are already changing the world all around them with each step. While girls may excel earlier in art and language, boys excel more often in math and science because of their innate affinity and learned enthusiasm for each subject.
The different learning patterns all come back to maturity. Boys are without a doubt more mature at an earlier age than girls. Boys are just smart enough to hide it. The longer boys act immature, the less work boys have to do and the more time boys have to enjoy their youthfulness before they need to become men and incorporate themselves as productive members of society. We just happen to be smarter and more conniving than girls to make adults all think we are immature little kids. Sometimes we act just like little kids, but are you not jealous of the amount of fun we have? Boys are superior to girls without showing it. You can thank our modesty.
Sincerely,
Jack Kalanik
Works Cited
• Elsevier. "Sexual dimorphism of brain developmental trajectories during childhood and adolescence." NeuroImage 15 July 2007: 165-173. NASSPE: Research > Brain Differences. Web. 3 Nov. 2010.
• Harriet Hanlon, Robert Thatcher, and Marvin Cline. Gender differences in the development of EEG coherence in normal children. Developmental Neuropsycho
Why do girls mature so much faster than boys do?
Sylvia Montijo (Chicago)
Dear Sylvia,
Girls mature faster than boys. It has been said millions of times, but nothing is ever black and white. There is always that grey area. And I say that this subject happens to have a large grey area. Children’s brains develop in different ways, not on the same path as most neurologists previously thought. In 2007, the world's largest study of brain development in children was published and their results demonstrated that there was no overlap in the trajectories of brain development in girls and boys (Elsevier). Yes, girls do act more maturely at younger ages, but only in certain ways compared to boys of the same age. But, of course, everyone knows that boys are actually more mature.
The fact of the matter is that boys are very mature; they just choose not to show it to everyone. Every boy, from the day they are born, has an innate knowledge that they understand the world much more easily than girls (Sorry ladies). Boys do not play house or play with dolls; they play with toys that encourage them to explore, learn, and ultimately enjoy life to the fullest capacity from a young age. Even if a boy is introverted, he can explore inwardly and follow a different path in which he pursues other endeavors, such as a musical or an intellectual activity. The exceptional part about a boy’s maturity is that every boy hides it from the world whether deliberately or subconsciously. Boys push themselves to become intelligent, physically active, and socially graceful. The most matured part about a boy, though, is his competiveness. From a very early age, boys begin to push themselves to the limit of what they are capable of. Whether they succeed in these ventures relies on their determination, but they will continue to strive until they find the niche that best suits them.
Girls may mature socially faster than boys and develop their fine motor skills, as well, but when it comes to handwriting and sewing both are becoming less and less useful. In this age of technology, a kid will only need to learn how to type and write their signature. Few girls today are required to sew their own clothes or create household linens. No one will need to be able to write lengthy narratives legibly or sew dainty garments, so the early fine motor skills do not contribute to a huge gap between the maturity of a boy and that of a girl.
A girl’s early maturity is often evident in her social skills. A girl may be very adept at creating new friendships with other girls, but with this skill comes jealously and the need to fit in with others. The early development of social skills is just a distraction for young women. If they learned to follow the example of boys, girls would be much better off. Because of boy’s late-developing social skills, they have time to learn about themselves first before attempting to learn about their peers. This shows that we are deep ladies, not as shallow or brain-dead as some of you may think. This allows boys to become comfortable with themselves first before attempting to learn about their peers and before becoming immersed in social situations. Boys have the advantage of time to learn about themselves before they attempt to cultivate or understand relationships with others.
Boys also develop much more practical skills earlier than girls. The first skill sets that a girl develops are included in the creative and linguistic areas of a young girl’s brain (Hanson). On the other hand, the boys’ brains are maturing in the parts concerning targeting and spatial memory, areas that mature about four years earlier in boys than girls (Hanson). Another obvious reason why we are better, we do not just go out there and improvise, we learn and adapt. They learn how to build and construct things when they are younger. They are already changing the world all around them with each step. While girls may excel earlier in art and language, boys excel more often in math and science because of their innate affinity and learned enthusiasm for each subject.
The different learning patterns all come back to maturity. Boys are without a doubt more mature at an earlier age than girls. Boys are just smart enough to hide it. The longer boys act immature, the less work boys have to do and the more time boys have to enjoy their youthfulness before they need to become men and incorporate themselves as productive members of society. We just happen to be smarter and more conniving than girls to make adults all think we are immature little kids. Sometimes we act just like little kids, but are you not jealous of the amount of fun we have? Boys are superior to girls without showing it. You can thank our modesty.
Sincerely,
Jack Kalanik
Works Cited
• Elsevier. "Sexual dimorphism of brain developmental trajectories during childhood and adolescence." NeuroImage 15 July 2007: 165-173. NASSPE: Research > Brain Differences. Web. 3 Nov. 2010.
• Harriet Hanlon, Robert Thatcher, and Marvin Cline. Gender differences in the development of EEG coherence in normal children. Developmental Neuropsycho
Wednesday, March 16, 2011
Banana or Blueberry?
Dear Lowdown:
How do you make a good fruit smoothie?
Sheena Artajo (Chicago)
Ms. Artajo:
A “good” fruit smoothie is really quite painless to prepare, but I am not going to teach you how to make a “good” fruit smoothie. Why only aim for “good”? Instead, I will enlighten you as to how to prepare a luscious, savory, tantalizing, mouthwatering smoothie. It takes more than simply throwing together some fruit and yogurt and hoping for the best. If you are merely looking for a good-tasting frothy drink, go have a milkshake. However, if you want a delicious and nutritious smoothie, there are many ways to flatter your taste buds and your body. Not only will this drink taste exquisite, but your spirit will be lifted as well. Three simple elements constitute a powerfully wonderful smoothie: fruits, a thickener, and a liquid.
If you want to practice this ancient art of smoothie making, we must first consider the history of the smoothie in order to fully understand its significance. A primeval type of smoothie was first produced in India some 4,000 years ago by combining yogurt, fruit, spice, salt, and honey to create a drink called lassis (“Smoothies and Their Origin”). Mogul emperors also drank a refreshing beverage similar to lassis, except it is called sharbat (“Smoothies and Their Origin”). “Mogul” can mean influential, so these emperors must have known the soulful, influential benefits of these similar smoothie drinks. The smoothie was first introduced to America in the 1930s as puréed fruit drinks from Brazil, but smoothies did not become popular until the 1960s (“Smoothies and Their Origin”). I won’t even discuss how pitiful it is that smoothies took so long to become popular. Smoothies were then commercialized in the 1970s, when vegetarianism and health food stores became popular (“Smoothies and Their Origin”). From there, we have what we now know and love as smoothies. Smoothies must have had some impact on one’s soul in order for people the world over to still be drinking them today.
The primary ingredient that all smoothies must have is, of course, fruit. This fruit can be a solid or a liquid, organic or filled with chemicals, frozen or room-temperature, and sliced or diced. The fruit component is a free-for-all. You can add as much as you like or none at all. Just remember, fruit is a part of the natural world. By adding fruit to your delightful smoothie, you are becoming one with the cosmos. Experimentation is key when trying to make a magnificently delicious smoothie; texture and flavor play a role as well. Some fruits commonly used are blueberries, strawberries, raspberries, pineapples, and bananas. You can try different ingredients too, even going for something as exotic as a papaya or a mango. Just be sure that all of the fruit is puréed before you take it out of the blender, unless you want globs of banana flowing into your mouth while you’re trying to drink and enjoy your beverage. This can severely dampen your overall enjoyment of the smoothie, unless, of course, you enjoy chunkier smoothies. In general, to make one serving, you will want about one fourth of a cup of fruit in order for the taste to be spot on and the vitamins to be in good supply (Lynn).
Even though fruit might be the most basic element of a smoothie, the thickener is also a main component. While the thickener is a valuable component to the taste of your smoothie, you can also view the thickener as character and pizzazz added to your soulful smoothie. There are multiple options for a thickener, including yogurt or ice. Vanilla or plain yogurt usually does the trick, but you can always experiment with other flavors for a tangy twist. Ice is an excellent option for a thickener if you have more fresh fruit than frozen. The hard part about this step is adding the right amount, not too much and not too little. When making a smoothie for only one serving, about half a cup of thickener is ideal (Lynn). The thickener helps give the smoothie its texture and creaminess, but too much can leave the smoothie dull-tasting. The type and amount of thickener you add to a smoothie is quite reflective of you as an individual. Therefore, make sure you include the perfect amount and type of thickener so your smoothie is as rich, refreshing, and as full of pizzazz as your personality.
The final basic component of the perfect smoothie is a liquid. Juices or milks are always the best bet to make your smoothie smooth. Add in grape juice, orange juice, apple juice, soy milk, skim milk, or even whole milk. The juices are often great sources of antioxidants and can count as another whole serving of fruit. Soy milk is also a great option because of the protein, calcium, and isoflavones (“How to Make a Smoothie”). If you are not partial to the taste of soy milk, the flavor of the fruits will overpower it anyway. The liquid addition to your smoothie is quite a unique one, and you are incorporating parts of your persona into the drink. Remember that supreme smoothies consist of one part fruit, one part liquid, and two parts thickener, so for one smoothie you will want about one fourth a cup of your-choice liquid (Murray). The liquid has a major impact on the color of the smoothie, so be wise when combining multiple types. A good way to prepare for adding liquid to your smoothie is to review your colors. Yes, we are going all the way back to pre-school. Orange and white (orange juice and milk) will make a lovely yellow color, but orange and purple (orange juice and grape juice) will actually make brown, and who wants a brown smoothie?
If the food you eat throughout the day isn’t already loaded with chemical edibles, you may opt to add a type of powder to your smoothie. There are many types of powders available in the smoothie-making world, including supplements for protein, vitamins, or fiber, and you may need this artificial addition because of dietary or health reasons. As a warning, some artificial supplements may distract from the purity of the experience and therefore contaminate the soul. You should not have your spirit reflect an imitation or fabrication. Once all of your innovative ingredients have been added to the blender, make sure you mix your smoothie until all of the contents have been fully crushed and liquefied. Be aware of loose tops and the loud, petrifying noises of blenders, or else the smoothie-making process will not be enjoyable. Once your creation seems to be lump-free, enjoy! If, however, your soul does not have the energy to make one of these revitalizing smoothies, a trip to Jamba Juice is suitable as well.
Sincerely,
Caroline D’Andrea
Works Cited
Gallagher, Stephanie. “How to Make a Smoothie.” About.com. The New York Times
Company, 2010. Web. 15 Nov. 2010.
“How to Make a Smoothie.” PerfectSmoothie.com. PerfectSmoothie.com, 2009. Web.
15 Nov. 2010.
Lynn, Emmy. “Basic Fruit Smoothie Recipe.” BellaOnline. Minerva Webworks LLC,
2010. Web. 15 Nov. 2010.
Murray, Jennifer. “How to Make a Fruit Smoothie.” Suite101.com. Jennifer Murray, 21 Nov.
2008. Web. 15 Nov 2010.
“Smoothies and Their Origin.” Filling Low Calorie Foods. N.p, 18 Apr. 2010. Web. 15 Nov.
2010.
How do you make a good fruit smoothie?
Sheena Artajo (Chicago)
Ms. Artajo:
A “good” fruit smoothie is really quite painless to prepare, but I am not going to teach you how to make a “good” fruit smoothie. Why only aim for “good”? Instead, I will enlighten you as to how to prepare a luscious, savory, tantalizing, mouthwatering smoothie. It takes more than simply throwing together some fruit and yogurt and hoping for the best. If you are merely looking for a good-tasting frothy drink, go have a milkshake. However, if you want a delicious and nutritious smoothie, there are many ways to flatter your taste buds and your body. Not only will this drink taste exquisite, but your spirit will be lifted as well. Three simple elements constitute a powerfully wonderful smoothie: fruits, a thickener, and a liquid.
If you want to practice this ancient art of smoothie making, we must first consider the history of the smoothie in order to fully understand its significance. A primeval type of smoothie was first produced in India some 4,000 years ago by combining yogurt, fruit, spice, salt, and honey to create a drink called lassis (“Smoothies and Their Origin”). Mogul emperors also drank a refreshing beverage similar to lassis, except it is called sharbat (“Smoothies and Their Origin”). “Mogul” can mean influential, so these emperors must have known the soulful, influential benefits of these similar smoothie drinks. The smoothie was first introduced to America in the 1930s as puréed fruit drinks from Brazil, but smoothies did not become popular until the 1960s (“Smoothies and Their Origin”). I won’t even discuss how pitiful it is that smoothies took so long to become popular. Smoothies were then commercialized in the 1970s, when vegetarianism and health food stores became popular (“Smoothies and Their Origin”). From there, we have what we now know and love as smoothies. Smoothies must have had some impact on one’s soul in order for people the world over to still be drinking them today.
The primary ingredient that all smoothies must have is, of course, fruit. This fruit can be a solid or a liquid, organic or filled with chemicals, frozen or room-temperature, and sliced or diced. The fruit component is a free-for-all. You can add as much as you like or none at all. Just remember, fruit is a part of the natural world. By adding fruit to your delightful smoothie, you are becoming one with the cosmos. Experimentation is key when trying to make a magnificently delicious smoothie; texture and flavor play a role as well. Some fruits commonly used are blueberries, strawberries, raspberries, pineapples, and bananas. You can try different ingredients too, even going for something as exotic as a papaya or a mango. Just be sure that all of the fruit is puréed before you take it out of the blender, unless you want globs of banana flowing into your mouth while you’re trying to drink and enjoy your beverage. This can severely dampen your overall enjoyment of the smoothie, unless, of course, you enjoy chunkier smoothies. In general, to make one serving, you will want about one fourth of a cup of fruit in order for the taste to be spot on and the vitamins to be in good supply (Lynn).
Even though fruit might be the most basic element of a smoothie, the thickener is also a main component. While the thickener is a valuable component to the taste of your smoothie, you can also view the thickener as character and pizzazz added to your soulful smoothie. There are multiple options for a thickener, including yogurt or ice. Vanilla or plain yogurt usually does the trick, but you can always experiment with other flavors for a tangy twist. Ice is an excellent option for a thickener if you have more fresh fruit than frozen. The hard part about this step is adding the right amount, not too much and not too little. When making a smoothie for only one serving, about half a cup of thickener is ideal (Lynn). The thickener helps give the smoothie its texture and creaminess, but too much can leave the smoothie dull-tasting. The type and amount of thickener you add to a smoothie is quite reflective of you as an individual. Therefore, make sure you include the perfect amount and type of thickener so your smoothie is as rich, refreshing, and as full of pizzazz as your personality.
The final basic component of the perfect smoothie is a liquid. Juices or milks are always the best bet to make your smoothie smooth. Add in grape juice, orange juice, apple juice, soy milk, skim milk, or even whole milk. The juices are often great sources of antioxidants and can count as another whole serving of fruit. Soy milk is also a great option because of the protein, calcium, and isoflavones (“How to Make a Smoothie”). If you are not partial to the taste of soy milk, the flavor of the fruits will overpower it anyway. The liquid addition to your smoothie is quite a unique one, and you are incorporating parts of your persona into the drink. Remember that supreme smoothies consist of one part fruit, one part liquid, and two parts thickener, so for one smoothie you will want about one fourth a cup of your-choice liquid (Murray). The liquid has a major impact on the color of the smoothie, so be wise when combining multiple types. A good way to prepare for adding liquid to your smoothie is to review your colors. Yes, we are going all the way back to pre-school. Orange and white (orange juice and milk) will make a lovely yellow color, but orange and purple (orange juice and grape juice) will actually make brown, and who wants a brown smoothie?
If the food you eat throughout the day isn’t already loaded with chemical edibles, you may opt to add a type of powder to your smoothie. There are many types of powders available in the smoothie-making world, including supplements for protein, vitamins, or fiber, and you may need this artificial addition because of dietary or health reasons. As a warning, some artificial supplements may distract from the purity of the experience and therefore contaminate the soul. You should not have your spirit reflect an imitation or fabrication. Once all of your innovative ingredients have been added to the blender, make sure you mix your smoothie until all of the contents have been fully crushed and liquefied. Be aware of loose tops and the loud, petrifying noises of blenders, or else the smoothie-making process will not be enjoyable. Once your creation seems to be lump-free, enjoy! If, however, your soul does not have the energy to make one of these revitalizing smoothies, a trip to Jamba Juice is suitable as well.
Sincerely,
Caroline D’Andrea
Works Cited
Gallagher, Stephanie. “How to Make a Smoothie.” About.com. The New York Times
Company, 2010. Web. 15 Nov. 2010.
“How to Make a Smoothie.” PerfectSmoothie.com. PerfectSmoothie.com, 2009. Web.
15 Nov. 2010.
Lynn, Emmy. “Basic Fruit Smoothie Recipe.” BellaOnline. Minerva Webworks LLC,
2010. Web. 15 Nov. 2010.
Murray, Jennifer. “How to Make a Fruit Smoothie.” Suite101.com. Jennifer Murray, 21 Nov.
2008. Web. 15 Nov 2010.
“Smoothies and Their Origin.” Filling Low Calorie Foods. N.p, 18 Apr. 2010. Web. 15 Nov.
2010.
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